In March 2012, voters in the United States were worried about “smears and dirt” which the Obama campaign was preparing to use against whomever might be nominated to contest Obama’s incumbency. Mitt Romney was seen as the likely challenger.
Philip Freeman, a professor of classics, wrote at the time, giving historical perspective on the election:
It was a bitter and volatile campaign, with accusations of inconsistency, incompetence and scandal filling the air. Candidates competed to portray themselves as the true conservative choice, while voters fretted about the economy and war threatened in the Middle East. The year was 64 B.C., and Marcus Tullius Cicero was running for Roman consul.
Professor Freeman outlines advice given by Quintus, the brother of the famous Cicero. Quintus wrote, giving advice to his brother about how to run a successful campaign. Quintus was not shy, in the words of Freeman, giving advice that “would make Machiavelli blush.”
The advice given to candidate Cicero are relayed by Freeman in the form of five main points, wording them in ways which would be familiar to a twenty-first century U.S. voter:
1. Promise everything to everyone. Quintus says that the best way to win voters is to tell them what they want to hear: “Remember Cotta, that master of campaigning, who said he would promise anything, unless some clear obligation prevented him, but only lived up to those promises that benefited him.” As Quintus says, people will be much angrier with a candidate who refuses to make promises than with one who, once elected, breaks them.2. Call in all favors. If you have helped friends or associates in the past, let them know that it’s payback time: “Make it clear to each one under obligation to you exactly what you expect from him. Remind them all that you have never asked anything of them before, but now is the time to make good on what they owe you.” If someone isn’t in your debt, remind him that if elected, you can reward him later, but only if he backs you now.
3. Know your opponent’s weaknesses — and exploit them. Quintus practically invented opposition research: “Consider Antonius, who once had his property confiscated for debt … then after he was elected as praetor, he disgraced himself by going down to the market and buying a girl to be his sex slave.” A winning candidate calmly assesses his opponent and then focuses relentlessly on his weaknesses, all the while trying to distract voters from his strengths.
4. Flatter voters shamelessly. Quintus warns his brother: “You can be rather stiff at times. You desperately need to learn the art of flattery — a disgraceful thing in normal life but essential when you are running for office.” A candidate must make voters believe that he thinks they’re important. Shake their hands, look them in the eye, listen to their problems.
5. Give people hope. Even the most cynical voter wants to believe in someone: “The most important part of your campaign is to bring hope to people and a feeling of goodwill toward you.” Voters who are persuaded that you can make their world better will be your most devoted followers — at least until after the election, when you will inevitably let them down.
It is not clear to which extent Cicero followed his brother’s advice, but Cicero did win the election decisively.
Cicero became known as the man who defended the Roman Republic against those who wanted to turn it into an empire — into a dictatorship. Cicero brilliantly articulated the virtues of a government consisting of freely-elected representative.
His political enemies were also willing to use “smear” political tactics against him: they accused Cicero of giving or receiving bribes. Historical evidence is not conclusive.
Cicero was popular: he received the title “father of his country” after the election. But his popularity could not save him from the dirtiest political trick of them all: assassination.
How sincerely Cicero spoke — whether he personally embraced republican ideals, or whether he merely voiced them in response to their popularity — remains debatable. But even if he spoke cynically, his formulations of freedom as the product of government by freely-elected representatives remain powerful and influential.
Happily, the U.S. election of 2012 did not result in assassination. Sadly, neither Obama nor Romney understood, liked, or trusted the concept of government by freely-elected representatives to the extent that Cicero did.
